ART HISTORY I
Introduction
Since the early ages, humans looked up to the skies, towards some supreme being for answers and guidance. Archaeologists uncovered artifacts that indicate people worshiped idols or some form of a godly icon from the caveman era. Religion has been an integral part throughout most of the human civilizations. From the very ancient to the present time. It is one of the longest living concepts, which has survived for the past few centuries. Many people have fought and died in the name of their religion. For some odd reason, an extremely large population of humans needs some sovereign entity to pray for solutions on how to live their lives. People are very passionate and devoted to their religious beliefs, and can get very sensitive if their faith is challenged. Rulers claim to be of divine descent which gives them a legitimate power to the throne along with control over the people.
Most of what is known about history today came from the preserved remains of articles and architecture that were previously built then placed in tombs, stupas and/or temples. A very large collection of art that is displayed in the museums these days has some form of divinity being portrayed in their paintings and/or sculptures. Throughout various dynasties and the development of civilization, kings and other sovereign rulers claimed to be the descendants of their revered deity. Thus, giving them the ability to create laws in the name of their god for the rest of the people to follow. The majority of the time rulers do not even have to follow their own laws. Their godly right excludes them from being judged by other mortals. Because only other gods are able to pass judgment onto them. Those who hold that specific divine connection to the Gods have the most followers and supporters. They hold a special status and prestige in the stratified society. Just think of the Pharaohs in Egypt, the Asian emperors, and the history of Roman emperors.
Most of what is known about history today came from the preserved remains of articles and architecture that were previously built then placed in tombs, stupas and/or temples. A very large collection of art that is displayed in the museums these days has some form of divinity being portrayed in their paintings and/or sculptures. Throughout various dynasties and the development of civilization, kings and other sovereign rulers claimed to be the descendants of their revered deity. Thus, giving them the ability to create laws in the name of their god for the rest of the people to follow. The majority of the time rulers do not even have to follow their own laws. Their godly right excludes them from being judged by other mortals. Because only other gods are able to pass judgment onto them. Those who hold that specific divine connection to the Gods have the most followers and supporters. They hold a special status and prestige in the stratified society. Just think of the Pharaohs in Egypt, the Asian emperors, and the history of Roman emperors.
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The Law Code of Hammurabi Stele
A stele is a semi-tall pillar with a carving at the top and the writing on the bottom, usually erected to commemorate a king and his desires. As in the case of this image to the left the Law Code of Hammurabi. A soaring monument displays a scene at the very peak of it with the king having a conversation with God and below that is a whole lot of carved out writing of the divine laws, rules, and consequences that Hammurabi wanted to put in place for his people to follow. The bas-relief displays the king as a small figure on the left side of the carving, with a meek stance, while the Mesopotamian Sun God is represented as a much larger figure on the right with a stance of authority. He is the one sitting on the throne, with a stunningly spiral-horned crown and multiple lightning strikes shooting out of his shoulders. The sun god is displayed with a full-frontal body, yet the face is carved in profile. The sculpture shows Hammurabi receiving what looks like a scepter and a ring, which are both signs of power, along with a set of divine laws that are carved into the stone below the scene.
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Akhenaten was a pharaoh in ancient Egypt who is most famous for creating his own religion and possibly influencing the development of a monotheistic following. The pharaoh’s original name was Amenhotep however, after his conversion to worshiping the Sun God, Aten, the pharaoh chose a new name for himself as Akhenaten. It translates into something along the lines of “effective or successful for” or “of great use to” the god Aten, he also proclaimed himself as a god incarnate of a single all-powerful deity (Mark 2014).
The previously artistic representations of pharaohs, before and after Akhenaten’s reign, most of the time illustrated the rulers as a partially clad figure in an ideal form and youthfully athletic appearance. The artworks generally demonstrated them engaging in some form of a battle, standing before a god, or with his queen. The plaque on the left, on the other hand, illustrates a completely different scene. It exhibits a family sharing an intimately happy moment. Some speculate that pharaoh’s actual elongated features might have been due to some form of hereditary deformity. Thus, the carvings of Akhenaten, his wife, and their children, display them by having lengthy necks, arms, and legs; along with an accentuated round belly and hips. However, some disagree and think that the unusual features make the whole family appear as extraordinary and unique. As if they are the only ones who were chosen to be represented as god’s delegates, thus they transformed into a god-like status. Since they are the only ones who possess those distinctively elongated features and as the image portrays as the only ones who are being touched by Aten’s sun rays. Akhenaten’s religious reform was not widely accepted, and the high priests of the traditional Egyptian polytheistic faith were not too happy with the change. During his reign, Akhenaten outlawed worshiping any other god but Aten. He abolished the traditional religious following and built new temples for Aten. However, after his death, all his monuments and constructions were either dismantled or destroyed and gradually the traditional Egyptian practices were reestablished once again. |
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A gold coin with an image of a man , an inscription at the top, and an inlaid halo of wheat or barley, that surrounds the portrait, generally indicate of special status. A halo in any image signifies importance of the engraved individual. It also depict a sign of divine link. Since the early times, an image of wheat has been used as a symbol of abundance and a way of demonstrating the kingdom's wealth and power. As the coinage got used for trade, it got spread around. Since the Aksumite coins were mainly struck in gold, silver, and bronze, according to the British museum they were mostly used for international trading with other countries. Furthermore, the crescent and disc were only used until the nation converted to Christianity (British Museum 2016). A portrait of a ruler along with an inscription was a way to spread information. The gold coin displays the king wearing a head-cloth, which is indicated by the three gently curving lines around the forehead area and ends with a triangular strip in the back of the head. The pre-Christian kings referred to themselves as “sons of Mahrem” (Munro-Hay 2006) As with most monarchs throughout one civilization into another, Aksumite rulers were no different and like the majority of the monarchs, they also employed the divine power to keep their sovereignty in the family.
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As the Aksumite nation progressed and after converting to Christianity the currency got altered as well. The reigning monarchs were continued to be depicted on the coins in their sacred regalia, along with various insignias and inscriptions which denoted their importance. The gold coin got replaced by a copper penny, the disc and crescent got removed, and the engraved king was now displayed wearing a three-pointed crown with a cross in the center. According to the British Museum, the circulation of copper coins increased around the fourth century and was printed with Christian crosses and inscriptions (British Museum 2016). Dr. Stuart Munro-Hay who was a scholar of ancient Ethiopia and south Arabia, claims that in ancient times, Aksum was one of the very few prosperous nations in Ethiopia with a literate population and it was the only African state to have its own currency (Munro-Hay 2006). It would appear that once the nation expressed their devotion to Christianity, the divine rulers became the messengers of God and as the local head of the church.
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Yaxchilán was one of the dynasties during the Maya culture in what is known today as the classic period. It was customary for a ruler to give blood as a sacrifice or as a token of honor to the gods for any special occasion. (Kilroy-Ewbank 2016) As the carving of two richly attired figures illustrates a king standing over his queen with a spear-like torch, while she is kneeling in front of him and pulling a barbed rope through her tongue. The queen’s willingness to perform that self-sacrifice, as she bleeds onto the stack of papers in the basket is a way to communicate with the gods along with her display of authenticity as a sovereign ruler.
Mayans were very superstitious, as a result, bloodletting was done as a common ritual to appease the gods. It was mostly performed by sovereign leaders because only the blood of elites would satisfy the gods. At the very top of the image, right above the king’s flamboyant crown, as well as behind him, are glyphs that provide the details of the illustrated event, along with the date of the ritual and the names of the individuals who performed it. As in most royal lineages, the Mayans were no different. They also believed that the rulers were descendants of the gods and if they wanted to maintain the balance, they had to offer their blood to satisfy the divine spirits. The ceremonial blood sacrifice was also a way for the royals to demonstrate their strengths and their legitimacy. |
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The K'inich Janaab' Pakal was a Mayan ruler of Palenque city during the Mesoamerican classic period. He is most famous for growing what used to be a relatively modest and obscure city into one of the most remarkable metropolitan areas in the region (Jimenez 2016). Initially, it was Pakal’s maternal father, who took control of the throne. However, he was only a lord and ended up dying shortly after. Nevertheless, it left Pakal’s mother as the queen of Palenque. Some of the deciphered inscriptions indicate that she might have been posed as a supernatural figure and as a monarch who would rule over the dynasty until her son reached the age of maturity (J. J. Mark 2014). The tablet on the left is one of many that was carved into the walls of the palace and used to characterize king Pakal with the Mayan Maize god by resembling his hair as the corn silk. He is characterized by an elongated head, hooked nose, and high cheekbones, which in the Mayan culture were considered as ideal features of beauty ("The Maya Concept of Beauty" 2000-2019). The plaque illustrates the king sitting cross-legged on the double-headed jaguar throne. He is adorned with many jewels and in front of his throne is a woman who is bestowing him with a ceremonial headdress and a sovereign rule that comes with it. At the beginning of Pakal’s reign, many nobles argued that he was not the rightful heir. In response, he had outlined his lineage to establish his divine descent and to indicate that in fact, the Mayan Maize god was his ancestor, thus authenticating his family’s legitimate claim to the seat of power.
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Gaius Octavius Julius Caesar Augustus was the son of a Roman senator. He started his career as a military leader. Julius Caesar was his great uncle and since he had no legitimate children himself, he adopted Gaius Octavius as his political heir. Augustus was the first official Roman emperor and by most accounts considered to be one of the greatest reigning rulers as well (History. com 2018). During his supremacy, he restored peace, built many temples, and reformed laws to promote and maintain stability. The marble sculpture portrays Augustus as a young man in excellent physical shape, dressed in militaristic regalia. His breastplate is covered with characters that express narratives of his victories and his connections to the gods. The statue displays Augustus standing in a relaxed pose with an outstretched arm as if he is giving a speech to his people. At his right leg, there is a figure of a cupid riding a dolphin and being that the dolphin is a sea creature, therefore, it is used as a symbol of a naval prowess (Fischer 2015). Cupid is the son of Venus, the goddess of love. Given that Julius Caesar claimed to be descended from Venus and since he adopted Augustus, thus, in turn, Augustus also shared that connection with the gods and legitimate right to the rulership.
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Work Cited
2000-2019. "The Maya Concept of Beauty". Salem Media. Accessed December 9, 2019. https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-maya-concept-of-beauty.
American Historical Association. n.d. Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi. Accessed 11 20, 2019. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power-art-as-an-historiographic-tool/stele-with-law-code-of-hammurabi.
British Museum. 2016. Aksumite Coins. September 23. Accessed December 7, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/aksumite-coins/.
Fischer, Julia. 2015. Augustus of Primaporta. August 8. Accessed December 6, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/augustus-of-primaporta/.
History. com, Editors. 2018. Augustus. August 21. Accessed December 7, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/emperor-augustus.
Jimenez, Maya. 2016. Palenque (Classic Period). August 19. Accessed December 3, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/palenque/.
Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. 2016. Yaxchilán—Lintels 24 and 25 from Structure 23 and structures 33 and 40,. April 9. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/yaxchilan-lintels/.
Mark, Joshua J. 2014. "K'inich Janaab' Pakal.". March 28. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Kinich_Janaab_Pacal/.
Mark, Joshua J. 2014. Akhenaten. April 17. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Akhenaten/.
Munro-Hay, Stuart C. 2006. The Civil Administration. Edited by Alan Light. February 08. Accessed December 6, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20060208203951/http://users.vnet.net/alight/aksum/mhak3.html#c9.
Schele, Linda. n.d. Drawing of Palenque Oval Palace Tablet. Accessed November 21, 2019. http://ancientamericas.org/collection/aa010835.
2000-2019. "The Maya Concept of Beauty". Salem Media. Accessed December 9, 2019. https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-maya-concept-of-beauty.
American Historical Association. n.d. Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi. Accessed 11 20, 2019. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power-art-as-an-historiographic-tool/stele-with-law-code-of-hammurabi.
British Museum. 2016. Aksumite Coins. September 23. Accessed December 7, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/aksumite-coins/.
Fischer, Julia. 2015. Augustus of Primaporta. August 8. Accessed December 6, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/augustus-of-primaporta/.
History. com, Editors. 2018. Augustus. August 21. Accessed December 7, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/emperor-augustus.
Jimenez, Maya. 2016. Palenque (Classic Period). August 19. Accessed December 3, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/palenque/.
Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. 2016. Yaxchilán—Lintels 24 and 25 from Structure 23 and structures 33 and 40,. April 9. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://smarthistory.org/yaxchilan-lintels/.
Mark, Joshua J. 2014. "K'inich Janaab' Pakal.". March 28. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Kinich_Janaab_Pacal/.
Mark, Joshua J. 2014. Akhenaten. April 17. Accessed December 8, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Akhenaten/.
Munro-Hay, Stuart C. 2006. The Civil Administration. Edited by Alan Light. February 08. Accessed December 6, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20060208203951/http://users.vnet.net/alight/aksum/mhak3.html#c9.
Schele, Linda. n.d. Drawing of Palenque Oval Palace Tablet. Accessed November 21, 2019. http://ancientamericas.org/collection/aa010835.
Photo used under Creative Commons from Quentin Verwaerde